Mythology

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Furthermore, in the context of this document, all myths are, at some stage, actually believed to be true by the peoples of the societies that used or originated the myth. Our definition is thus clearly distinguished from the use of the word myth in everyday speech which basically refers to any unreal or imaginary story.

A myth is also distinctly different from an allegory or parable which is a story deliberately made up to illustrate some moral point but which has never been assumed to be true by anyone.

Some myths describe some actual historical event, but have been embellished and refashioned by various story tellers over time so that it is impossible to tell what really happened. In this last aspect myths have a legendary and historical nature.

To define myth is as pointless as it is difficult, since definitions are by nature exclusive, and will inevitably leave out some facet of human belief that someone considers as myth. Conversely, any definition that seeks to include all facets will be so broad as to be useless in any concentrated discussion. So lets forget definitions and focus instead on the uses of myth. Joseph Campbell offer four major uses: Cosmological, Transcendental, Socio-political, and Psychological.

Myths, the possessions of specific cultures in specific times, have a half-life. They are born out of experience, they evolve to meet the needs and organize the world of the mother culture, and they diminish in force as the culture loses energy over time.

There is no Myth, only myths.
There is no myth without a culture, as there is no culture without a myth.
There can be no myth without language, as there can be no language without myth and culture.
Myth does not explain. It names and it arranges, but it does not explain. The splendid mythic resonance of Genesis 1, in which God created the world by speaking it into existence, does not explain either the How or the Why of that world, or Godís motive for making it.

A second meaning of the term mythology is the academic study of myths and systems of myths in general.

Creation myths provide an explanation of the origin of the universe in all its complexity. They are an important part of most mythological systems. Creation myths often invoke primal gods and animals, titanic struggles between opposing forces or the death and/or dismemberment of these gods or animals as the means whereby the universe and its components were created.

Apart from an explanation of the creation of the universe, mythologies also seek to explain everyday natural phenomena. The Egyptian scarab god Khepri, who rolled the ball of the sun across the sky each day thus provided an explanation of the rising of the sun each day, its progress across the sky and its setting in the evening. Similarly, the Maori of New Zealand attributed the morning dew to the tears of the god Rangi (Heaven) for the goddess Papa (Earth) from whom he was separated. This class of myth is sometimes called a nature myth.

Myths are also often used to explain human institutions and practices as well. For example, the Greek hero Pelops was reputed to have started the Olympic Games after Poseidon helped him win the hand of Hippodameia in a chariot race. This type of myth is thus etiological. It seeks to account for some human institution through a myth.

Another class of myth is the Theogenic myth. This sets out to delineate the relationships between various gods and other mythical personages and beings who are mentioned in previously existing myths. Theogenic Myths are thus secondary in their purpose. They set out to provide a reinforcement or framework for an existing system of myths. The best known example of this is the Theogeny of Hesiod.

It should not be thought that the functions of myths as delineated above are mutually exclusive. For example creation myths by their very nature are usually Theogenic as well. Myths can, and have, served many purposes. Myths and systems of myths have been created by human beings for many reasons over thousands of years. They are a superb product of humanity collectively and a rich resource for the enjoyment of all mankind. Their fantastic and unreal nature to our modern eyes should not prevent us from enjoying them.

One way of approaching creation myths is to outline some of the themes that commonly occur in them. It should be noted at the outset however, that these themes or motifs are the creation of modern scholars of myths and mythology, not the people who created the myths in the first place. While they are useful and can provide us with a great deal of insight, individual creation myths cannot be expected to conform rigidly to a single modern stereotype. Rather, any one creation myth will have several thematic features to a greater or lesser degree. This is the rule rather than the exception. This article will attempt to deal with some of the main themes occurring in creation myths.

One myth that may be used to illustrate several themes is the traditional Chinese creation myth. This is the myth of Pan-gu (also known as P'an-ku). There are written texts of this myth going back to the 6th century AD and there are parts of Southern China where the cult of P'an Ku still persists. The most common form of the myth is as follows:

The formless chaotic egg which was the birthplace of P'an Ku is an example of the idea of a primitive chaos, or featureless, undifferentiated universe. This is the most frequently found primordial stuff of the universe in creation myths. The Greeks referred to this initial formless state of the universe as chaos and this is the origin of the term. One very common variation on this idea describes the primordial universe as a great featureless body of water. For example this idea was used by the ancient Babylonians in their creation myth. The story of the Japanese gods Izanagi and Izanami stirring the waters of the earth to produce the island of Okonoro is another example of this theme of a primordial sea. In this case the ocean is the precursor of the earth rather than the whole universe.

In contrast to a primordial universe consisting of a some undifferentiated matter, there are some creation myths that describe a creation of the universe from nothing or ex nihilo. A god who exists in a void performs some action which results in the universe coming into being, sometimes in an undifferentiated state. The Egyptian creation myth as related in the Pyramid Texts is one example of creation from nothing. Atum is the first god who creates his brother and sister Shu and Tefnut. Another case of creation from nothing occurs in the most common of the Samoan creation myths. Tangaroa, who is the supreme god in Samoan mythology, but usually only the god of the ocean for other Polynesians created the world by thinking of it. A further examples of ex nihilo creation is the creation myth of the Kalahari Bushmen of Africa. Monotheistic religions also usually envisage an ex nihilo creation. Numerous other instances of ex nihilo creation myths exist.

It should be noted that creation myths may involve one or several stages of creation. In the latter case a primordial god typically creates part of the universe and has offspring who then further differentiate the primitive universe. They too have offspring who do further things. Often there is conflict between different generations of gods for mastery of the universe. Also at some stage, human beings and the world as we know it come into being. The creation myth of classical Greek mythology is a good example of a multi stage creation of the universe. The creation myth of P'an-ku is likewise a good example of a single stage creation myth.

A second theme of creation myths that occurs in the story of P'an-ku is the idea of the earth and the sky forming by the separation of the original matter of the universe. Most often, the earth and sky are primordial deities of different sexes. In most cases the earth is female and the sky male. The Maori and Polynesian creation myth of Rangi and Papa is a good example of this. In this creation myth the primordial universe is the bodies of the two gods Papa and Rangi. Their separation by their offspring is the act which creates the universe as we know it. A similar idea is embodied in the Egyptian creation myth of Nut and Geb. In contrast to most earth and sky deities, Nut, the sky god, is female. However, like Rangi and Papa, Nut and Geb are separated by their offspring.

Another theme that occurs in the P'an Ku creation myth is the idea that the earth or the world or even the entire universe is the bodily remains of a primordial being or deity. This also occurs in the Norse creation myth where the primordial giant Ymir is killed by Odin, Vili and Ve. The earth is formed from the dead body of Ymir. His flesh becomes the land, his blood becomes the sea, his bones become the mountains and his hair becomes the trees. His skull becomes the vault of the heavens. A similar story occurs in the Babylonian creation myth related in the Babylonian epic Enuma elish written around 1100 BC. The Babylonian god Marduk fights and kills Tiamat, the primordial goddess of the ocean. He cuts her body in two. One half becomes the sky, the other half the earth. The Norse and Babylonian creation myths also involve the notion whereby the creation of the universe involves a struggle between primordial gods and/or beings. This idea is also a common theme in many other creation myths. Classical Greek mythology, for example, has several struggles. There is the original one between Uranus and his offspring, ending in the death of Uranus at the hands of Cronus. Later on there is the struggle between Zeus and the Titans.

The final general aspect of creation myths shown in the P'an Ku myth is that they always involve the creation of human beings at some stage by gods or other supernatural entities. By doing this, a connection is established between the everyday world of human beings and the supernatural world of the god or gods who created the universe. It also establishes the place of human beings in the hierarchy of life inhabiting the universe. Man is placed below gods and other supernatural beings but above animals and plants. This aspect shows us the aetiological or explanatory function of creation myths.

Norse Creation Myth
The Norse creation story has heaps of mythic elements, from the primeval giant Ymir to the cow Audhumla the reader is beseiged with mythic archetypes. This is a problem for the researcher trying to sort out true heathen tradition from the trappings of Christianity.

What The Eddas say
In the beginning there was the void. And the void was called Ginnungagap. What does Ginnungagap mean? Yawning gap, beginning gap, gap with magical potential, mighty gap; these are a few of the educated guesses. Along with the void existed Niflheim the land of fog and ice in the north and Muspelheim the land of fire in the south. There seems to be a bit of confusion as to whether or not these existed after Ginnungagap or along side of it from the beginning.

In Niflheim was a spring called Hvergelmir from which the Elivagar (eleven rivers - Svol, Gunnthra, Fiorm, Fimbulthul, Slidr, Hrid, Sylg, Ylg, Vid, Leiptr, and Gioll) flowed. The Elivargar froze layer upon layer until it filled in the northerly portion of the gap. Concurrently the southern portion was being filled by sparks and molten material from Muspelheim.

The mix of fire and ice caused part of the Elivagar to melt forming the figures Ymir the primeval giant and the cow Audhumla. The cow's milk was Ymir's food. While Ymir slept his under arm sweat begat two frost giants, one male one female, while his two legs begat another male.

While Ymir was busy procreating Audhumla was busy eating. Her nourishment came from licking the salty ice. Her incessant licking formed the god Buri. He had a son named Bor who was the father of Odin, Vili, and Ve.

For some reason the sons of Bor decided to kill poor Ymir. His blood caused a flood which killed all of the frost giants except for two, Bergelmir and his wife, who escaped the deluge in their boat.

Odin, Vili, and Ve put Ymir's corpse into the middle of ginnungagap and created the earth and sky from it. They also created the stars, sun, and moon from sparks coming out of Muspelheim.

Finally, the brothers happened upon two logs lying on the beach and created the first two humans Ask [ash] and Embla [elm or vine] from them.

Another Norse Creation Myth
The Eddic poem Völuspá (Prophecy of the Seeress) portrays a period of primeval chaos, followed by the creation of giants and gods and, finally, of humankind. Ginnungagap was the yawning void, Jotunheim the home of the giants, Niflheim the region of cold, and Muspellsheim the realm of heat. The great world-tree, Yggdrasil, reached through all time and space, but it was perpetually under attack from Nidhogg, the evil serpent. The fountain of Mimir, source of hidden wisdom, lay under one of the roots of the tree.

Another Norse Creation Myth
The Norse believed that at the beginning of time there was Niflheim which was an icy region, Muspell which was a fiery region and a large void called Ginnungagap. Over time the fires and sparks of Muspell warmed the frozen vapours of Niflheim, condensed them into water and they started to drip. The drips collected in Ginnungagap and two gigantic beings were formed -- Ymir a frost giant and a huge cow called Audumla.

Ymir drank Audumla's milk and grew bigger and stronger. One night while he was asleep, Ymir sweated. From the sweat from the soles of his feet a six-headed troll appeared. A male and a female frost giant grew from the sweat of his armpits. The cow was licking the salty ice and gradually a new creature came into being. The first day hair appeared; on the second, a head; and on the third the body of a new giant, called Buri. Buri's sons and grandsons became the gods, not giants. Odin led all of his kin against Ymir and killed him. He dragged Ymir's enormous body into Gunnungagap. His flesh became the earth, his blood the sea, his bones the mountains, his hair the trees and his teeth became stones. Odin and the others discovered worms in the earth and turned them into dwarves and dark elves. The gods also discovered light elves. The blood (sea) drowned all of frost giants except two who started a new race of giants from which came all warlocks, enchanters and witches. Odin set Ymir's skull over earth as the sky. He put the brains around the sky and called them clouds. Sparks from Muspell formed stars. Ymir's eyebrows were turned into land called Midgard. The first two humans were created from trees -- a man from an ash, a woman from an elm. The gods then departed by the bridge to Asgard. There were nine worlds: Niflheim (mist and dead), Muspell (fire), Midgard (humans), Jotunheim (frost giants), Alfheim (light elves), Nidavellir (dwarves), Svatalfheim (dark elves), Vanaheim (Vanir gods), Asgard (Aesir). Above all the worlds was a wondrous tree, Yggdrasil, the world tree.

Another Norse Creation Myth
Nothingness bore Cosmi. She was made when nothingness had to much energy to remain nothing. Like lightning crashing into a tree, Cosmi was thrust into a plane of nothing, herself being the only thing in a vast field of emptiness. She took the emptiness in her hands, and squeezed it so hard, she created tiny crystals. These crystals would glow with her divine energy in her palm, lighting her face with wonder.

Cosmi knew that emptiness could not last. She threw the crystals over the blackness as hard as she could, scattering them everywhere. The crystals finally stopped plummeting outward, and came to a stop, hovering in mid air. She saw these glowing beacons of light, and named them stars.

Playfully flicking a few shards with the tip of her finger, they began to circle these stars. These shards, being long and pointed on one end where named comets. She thought this speckled field most amusing, and journied throughout it quite frequently. After many eons of looking at all of the patterns of stars she had made, she picked one fragment into her hand, and being very bored, tossed it between her hands, rubbing it between her fingers and toes for days. The star became duller, and duller, and became covered in dirt. She liked this small dirty pebble, because she was sick of seeing stars, and she twirled it around a large yellow crystal, watching it spin and spin around.

After making more of these dirty crystals she called planets, she was old. She feared that she would be alone forever. While riding her comet through her favorite star pattern, she decided the cosmos needed someone else around. She hopped off her comet, and grabbed it by the head, looking at its tail curiously.

Cosmi ripped herself in two, creating Bast and Kira, using her lance of a comet's tail. The two looked at each other and smiled, sharing their first and only hug.

Kira recoiled as Bast did, and they hissed, sensing the true alignment of each other's essence. They clashed at each other, falling apon the first planet, Nidyhr.

Nail tore vents in flesh, sprayed blood, creating the life of each race. The elves were rent from Kira's cheek, the satyrs from a lock of Kira's hair, the nymphs from a vicious slash to Bast's chest, Bast's black blood begetting mind flayers. Dwarves spurting forth as the frothy spittle of Kira as Bast landed a solid hit, knocking out two teeth, the large incisor calling forth the humans, a small round molar shifting to become the halflings. Bast's eyeball gouged out by Kira's talonlike nails rolled aside, forming felinus as Bast grabbed Kira's fingers and ripped off her ring, tossing it aside to reofrm into the centaurs, and also her index finger, to birth the giants. Bast screamed then, hollow and primal, calling forth the blood of Kira's combat ravaged body, forming deep oceans, scattering the races. Kira sensed her children screaming and flung her hands up in their defense, land ripping up from the cody depths of Bast's creation. Bast dove under the water, swimming under the rocks Kira had made continents, into the dank underdark. Kira turned and gathered her children to grow and bask in the sun.

Bast's pitable stat of being alone lasted for many years, her body healed but her mind torn between thinking of ways to pay Kira back for her disgusting truth of heart and her pure soul, and crying over her lonely state. The mind flayers swam around her, happy to be near her multi-faceted mindstate, though they offered her nothing. She wanted someone she could call her own, to carress and kiss in this, her refuge from the light that is Kira. Her hand raised and she stood for a moment, studying her nails before the middle roared to life in flames. She watched the shadows dancing before her on the walls and formed an image in her mind, allowing it to take shape on the walls as was in her mind. A strong form of a man, something unknown to either goddess, formed slowly, fluttering and dancing with the flame's limited light. Her finger exsinguished and she cursed, calling out to her masked god. She felt gentle fingers touch her cheek and she smiled, knowing she had done well. She ran her fingers over him and sighed contentedly."You will be known as Lan, my sweet god of darkness.." she cooed softly to him as the mind flayers spasmed with the excitement that poured from both entities.

The sun and the moon thought that Bast and Kira needed someone to mediate their personal battles, and created Olorin from stardust.

Lan thought that Bast was paying attention to Olorin rather than him, and created GodG to kill Olorin from the blood from Bast's finger, after he gave her a thorny rose. GodG would not kill Olorin because Olorin, being stronger than him, would kill him easily in his infantile state.

Olorin was re-writing documents when he encountered a stubborn ink blot, he made this blot take shape, simply to remove it from the page, but the blot rebelled and splattered back on the page. Olorin became very amused, and spun this form into godF.

Kira (after creation of people) thought that men and women should do something more than simply have sex, which was primarily lust, and she bore GodB.

Kira saw that Bast's hand was dementing the people, and she feared that they had lost sight of the truth. She created GodA from a dying babe in a dying woman's arms.

Greek Creation Myth
Chaos was the first thing to exist. He is sometimes called the oldest of the gods, but is also described as a shapeless void. From him sprang Ge (or Gaia), Tartarus, Eros, Erebus, and Nyx (Night). Ge brought forth Uranos, the sky and then the mountains and the sea. She had intercourse with her son, Uranos, to produce the first divine races (the Titans). Uranos didn't like his offspring and forced them back into Ge. Ge was enraged by this and she persuaded Chronos, the youngest of her children, to castrate Uranos during the next intercourse between Ge and Uranos. Uranos died and Chronos became ruler of heaven.

Chronos feared his children and so after his wife/sister, Rhea, gave birth, he ate the children.

However, Rhea hid one of her children, Zeus, on an island and substituted a rock to give to Chronos. Ge raised Zeus and plotted the overthrow of Chronos. The goddess Metis gave Chronos a drink which caused him to regurgitate Zeus' brothers and sisters. Zeus and his siblings fought and defeated their father.

There is not one clear story of the origin of humans. One story tells of Hephaestos sculpting Pandora, who is considered the first woman. In other stories Prometheus scuplts humans from clay models and Athena breathes life into them.

Comparison between Norse and Greek Creation Myths
In both mythologies there was a void at the beginning. In the Norse stories Gunnungagap, the void, was the eventual source of life. In the Greek creation myth, Chaos, a shapeless void, was all there was at the beginning and from him sprang all other creations. In both stories, the first gods revolted against their father or grandfather and by overthrowing him became the ruler of the worlds. In both, humanity was formed from nature rather than through descent from the gods. It is interesting that there was a great deal of detail about the formation of earth in the Norse myth and many more types of beings than just gods and humans.

Greek mythology vs. Norse mythology
Greek mythology and Roman mythology are almost identical. This is an accepted fact, as it is widely known that the Romans stole the Greek myths. [ Greek mythological beings are often confused with the Romans. They are, for the most part, completely different and the names should not be used interchangeably. See detailes at Greek names vs. Roman Names and Roman names vs. Greek Names pages. ] However, it is very interesting to note that the mythology of the Vikings (Norse) has many similarities with the Greek myths. These myths are, by no means, identical to the Greek ones (like the Roman ones are), but there are very distinct commonalities between the two. I see two possible reasons for this besides pure coincidence.

The first has to do with the fact that Norse myths were codified during the Viking era: 780 - 1070. This gives the Norsemen many centuries to become exposed to the Greek (or Roman) myths. The Vikings did travel as far east as the Caspian sea, which is further east than both Italy and Greece. The Norse myths were fashioned after the fall of the Roman empire. During the expansion of the Roman empire, the Romans were able to get all the way to Britain, which is farther west than the Scandinavian countries where these myths originated. The Vikings made many expeditions into Britain. So it is a very realistic thought that the Vikings could have been exposed to the stories of the Greek and Roman gods. It is also possible that the Vikings could have extrapolated parts of the Roman stories into their own. The only two existing primary sources of Norse mythology are the Prose (Elder) Edda, and the Poetic (Younger) Edda. These were written about one thousand to eight hundred years ago respectively.

The second factor has to do with mythology as an extension of the society that fashions it. I see mythology as an attempt by a people to explain the powerful forces which affect and shape it, that are beyond its control, such as weather, the elements, and nature. I also see gods as being characters that have many similarities with the people within the society. The gods and goddesses are powerful beings capable of super-human powers, but nevertheless are characters fraught with very human frailties and flaws. In this way they created gods that had similarities with the common man in the society. This made the gods more tangible and easier to identify with. I think that this was necessary because they were not yet at the societal maturity level to have a single god on a cosmic plane.

There are a number of parallels between the Greek and Norse mythologies. Some deities, for example, are very similar, even though not identical. Some of the gods do not have direct counterparts (Thor, Athena and Loki). A major difference, however, was caused by the very different environments in which the two cultures developed.

The land and climate in which the Norsemen lived was much harsher than that of the Greeks. Life was difficult compared to the gentler climate of Greece and its more abundant sources of food. With a milder climate, agriculture was not as tenuous, from one year to the next, as it would have been in northern Scandinavia. It would seem that the Norse myths reflect this harshness, with characters and tales that embody this arduous life.

There are not the same nuances about music and many of the arts in the Norse legends, as people would have had a lot less leisure time to develop these pursuits, being consumed with sustenance.

Most of the Norse gods were war-like in nature; while the Greeks had deities who affected war, it was certainly not to the same extent as the Norse. Again this was because the Greek culture had developed somewhat beyond that of the Vikings, where accomplishments in war were not the only things to be pursued and admired.

The Greeks definitely gave more importance to females than did the Norse. Although the Poetic Edda states that goddesses are of the same importance as gods, this is not borne out by a review of the Norse myths.

In this treatment, I have not been able to research in great detail the societies which developed these mythologies; a thorough study of them would, I believe, lead to more evidence that the differences in the societies resulted in the variances in the mythologies. By the same token, it would be interesting to determine, in greater detail, to what extent the similarities in the societies led to the parallels in the myths, or what evidence there is that the stories and characters in Norse mythology were "borrowed" from the Greeks and/or Romans.

Norse mythology, Scandinavian mythology, Viking mythology; all refer to the pre-Christian religion of the Norwegian, Swedish, Icelandic, and Danish peoples. A few books group Finnish mythology in with the Norse but the old beliefs of Finland form a separate tradition although there are some interesting parallels.

The Norse mythological system as we currently have it comes down to us mainly from the Icelandic Eddas and sagas which were written down a few centuries after the christianization of the north. There has been much research trying to discern the true ancient religion as practiced by the people of the Scandinavian countries as opposed to the representation we are given in the written sources.

Aside from any influence Christianity might have played, Norse mythology presents us with a multilayered, often contradictory, world view with a myriad of parallels in other mythological systems. It is a playground for the comparative mythology researcher, rich with elements from Indo-European, Shamanistic, and other belief systems.

Many people are familiar with J.R.R. Tolkien's Lord of the Rings or Wagner's The Ring of the Nibelung, but they are not familiar with Norse mythology to which both of these works are heavily indebted.

Tolkien was very well acquainted with Norse mythology, as can be seen by the use of it in his books. The name of one of his main characters, Gandalf, is found in The Poetic Edda. Gandalf is, in some ways, reminiscent of Odin, the leader of the Norse pantheon. Even the name Middle-earth, the setting for Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, comes from Norse mythology.

Wagner also referred to Norse tales. When he composed The Ring of the Nibelung, he combined the Norse The Saga of the Volsungs with the German epic The Nibelungenlied. Wagner relied less heavily on the The Nibelungenlied than some believe, and instead turned to the more pagan Volsung saga with its tale of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer and the valkyrie Brynhild.

Old Norse Mythology
The Old Norse Mythology is rather facinating. The ones aqquinted with the world of Tolkien can to some extent recognize themselves when dealing with this mythology. According to the old tales a man with the name of Gylfe, king of Svithiod, once entered the home of the gods and there he was told how the world begun. He met with three beings which had the names: Hög (High), Tredje (Third) and jämnhög (Even Height or something like that).
They told him how the world had been created and how everything was done. In the beginning there was the abyss (Ginnungagapet), North of this there was Nifelheim, the world of cold where Cold and Darkness rules. Frosty mists rose from the cold well of Hvergelmer. In the south there was the hot Muspelheim, a place where the being Surte ruled with a flaming sword. The mists from Hvergelmer formed the frozen stream of Elivågor which flowed in to the Ginnungagap and filled it with ice. But at the same time flares from Muspelheim fell into the abyss and the falling drops which became the result of the mix of flares and ice formed two giant beings: A cow with the name 'Audhumbla' and a giant named 'Ymer'. Ymer got his food from the cow by means of four mouths which he used to milk the cows four nipples. Audhumbla in turn lived on the white frost ont the rocks.

Her warm breath created a man called Bure wich by some mysterious way managed to get hold of a wife (it is not described how) and they where the first of the Asa dynasty of which Oden, Vile and Ve would be the greatest.

Ymer on his side created several different creatures. From his left arm a lovely couple sprung, from which the three fates Urd, Verdandi, Skuld (Guilt) and the wise Mimer came. His feet on the other hand created a three headed monster wich became the ancestor of the Rimtusarnas evil giant family.

Oden, wich destiny had choosen to become the one who would fullfill the creation, killed the giant Ymer (with help from his two brothers) and used his body as a ground for the new world. His blood became the sea (Where all the Rimtusarnas but one drowned). His skull became the sky. The bones in his sceleton became mountains, his brain the clouds and his tissues was grinded in the great mill 'Grottekvarnen', around whose main axis the universe turned, to become the dirt. The mill was driven by the giantesses Fenja and Menja. Ymers Eyebrows became a wall against the inhabitable surroundings. This new world was called Midgård.

The world down under was divided into three kingdoms each one with its own well. Hvergelmer, Mimers well and Urda well.From the Ginnungagap a large ash with the name 'Ygdrasil' grow. The branches of Ygdrasil covered all the then known world. In Hvergelmer the dragon Nidh”g lies and gnaws on the rots of the tree. Mimers well on the other hand is the well of wisedom, guarded by Mimer, Oden once gave his right eye for a drink of the water in this well.

At Urdawell which is guarded by the three fates the gods have their conferences each day. They ride daily over the bridge Bifrost, a bridge which shimmers in all the colours of the rainbow and is watched by the god Heimdal (also called Rig), nine mothers and nine sisters son and beholder of Gjallarhornet which is nordic tales last trump . Heimdal sleeps lighter than the bird, sees one hundred traveldays in each direction from his castle Himinbjorg and has such sharp hearing that he can hear the grass and the wool grow.

Once when Oden and his brothers where out taking a walk at the shore of the sea in Midgård, he found two Sceptring (?) trees with the names Ask and Embla. They set them free from the earth and gave them blood, power of motion, intelligence, will, fantasy and spirit. They where formed after their own appearence. From this couple the whole humanity evolved. The fate Urd gives every human a being called Fylgia at birth. This being are to follow her throughout his/her life.

Odens wife is called Frigg, and his sons ar called Tor and Balder. Tor is the strongest of the gods and is allways in war with the giants. He is armed with his 'strength belt' Megingjord and the hammer 'Mjölner' which like a boomerang allways return to his hand after a throw. He is travelling through space in a wagon which is pulled by the goats 'Tandgniostr' and 'Tandgrisner'. About his fights with the giants there is a lot of fascinating stories which have the character of folklore tales and which most certainly never have been accepted by the believing. As the god of thunder he enjoyed respectfull worshiping from the believers which can be proved by among other things the surviving names on villages (Thorsvik) and in other words like 'tordön' (The sound of lightning), torsdag (Thursday).

Balder on the other hand was the god of battle but got some of the characteristics of christ when the christian faith became known in the nordic countries. There is no certain proof that he really was the focus for some serious worshipping. Any way, the story about Balder is rather fascinating. In Snorre Sturlassons Edda he was portraied as Balder the kind. He was residing in his stronghold Breidablick. He was the kindest and the justest (?) of the gods. He was therefore loved of all the living beings in the world. Therefore his mother took a promise from all the living not to hurt him and cause of this Balder was invunerable. The gods therefore used him for target pracitizing, the arrows they used just bounced of him. But there where one plant which his mother had forgotten to ask and that was the misteltoe. One of the creatures in the 'inner circle' around the gods was the devious Loke (who really was of a giant family allthough he had been taken up by the gods) who when he realized the mistake made by Balders mother, quickly made an arrow of the misteltoe and instructed Balders blind brother, Höder, to shot it in a certain direction. The arrow hit Balder and he was promptly killed. The following story reminds a bit of the greek story where 'Persefone' and 'Prometheus' get's in more or less the same situation. The chocked gods tried to get Balder back from the kingddom of death. But failed due to the sly Loke which had disguised himself as an old woman with the name Töck. Loke got his punishment, he was caught in the river when he was trying to escape in the shape as a salmon. He was chained with his sons (Nares) Bowels to a rock just under a jut where a viper constantly drips his venom on the poor fellows face. Sigyn, his belowed, stays with him and tries to ease the pain by collecting the venom in a bowl but when the bowl is full and she i away to empty it Loke gets the poison in his face and he trembles in his agony, and with him the rest of the world.

Some of the creatures which stems from Loke is Fenrisulven and Midgårdsormen. Midgårdsormen was thrown in to the sea where he growed rapidly so that he eventually encircled the earth and bit himself in the tail. Fenrisulven on the other hand was adopted by the gods (which proved to be a big mistake). The playful puppy soon growed into a monster which strength and hostility threatened the other gods. Therefore they tried to bind him with a chain (with name Gleipner) made of iron which he promptly ripped apart. They made a new leash made of, among other things, the beard from women, the roots of the mountains, the sound of steps from a cat, the spitt from the bird and other equally rare materials. This very soft and thin rope was shown to Fenrisulven and he was offered to rip it apart. Fenrisulven, which suspeceted foul play, was rather reluctant to take the offer. Only when the god Tyr put his hand in to his mouth did he allow the rope to be pulled over the head. When he found out that he was tricked he thus in anger bit the hand of Tyr and thats the story behind Tyrs:s lost right hand...

There are other gods in the family, Like Brage (The god with the long beard) which sits at home in his fathers stronghold and uses his time to drink beer and write poems. There is 'Forsete', son of Balder, who is the god of justice and lives in the heavenly hall Glitner. The silent Vidar which rules over the lower regions where the last battle will be held.

Njord, son of a allegory daughter to Mimer with the name Natt (Night) and brother to Odens wife Frigg, belongs to a different breed called vanerna and is in the beginning in Asgård as hostage. He is the god of richeness and the protector of sailors. He commands the weather. His wife the skiing Skade is born in the mountains. Therefore she doesn't like beeing in Njords Stronghold 'Noatun' as she can't stand the screaming of the sea gulls. On the other hand Njord can't stand the howling from the wolfs in Skades mountains. Therefore they are living separately. Njords son is named Frej (or frö), and he rules over the fertility on earth. Frö:s sister, Freja (or Fröja) which resides in the castle Folkvang, most fittingly rules over love.

These brothers and sisters have rather complicated marriage relations. But Frejas husband seems to be Svipdag or Hermod while Frej after some persuasion managed to get a fair looking giantess with the name Gerd.

Of the dynasty of the vanerna was furthermore Nanna, which became wife to Balder (she got a chrushed heart when he was killed).

Other gods and godesses comes from the dynasty of elfs which in turn can be divided in to black elfs and light elfs. Only the light elfs are of any importance in this matter.

To this dynasty belongs, among other, the fairheaded Siv, wife of Tor in the wooden castle Bilskirnir (the greatest of all timebered houses) int the land of Trudvang. They had sons with the name of: Magne and Mode. Idun, wife of Brage, which made the wonderfull apples which gave the gods their eternal youth. Ivalde, which in the beginning of time was the guardian against the Rumtusarerna at Elivågor. He had a son, Valand (or as he also was called: Limping Valand or Völand), which was a blacksmith an whom one of the sadest edda stories is about. The seagod Ägir which is related to the giants but neveretheless has good relations to the gods and his wife the unfaithfull Ran which brings unhappiness to the humans.

To the gods one also counts, Billing and Delling, which is the morning glow and the sunset. The young maid Geifon, the litterary Saga which guards the mead of wisdom which comes from the river of Sökvabäck and fills the horn of the moon.

Pre-Christian religious beliefs of the Scandinavian people
The Scandinavian legends and myths about ancient heroes, gods, and the creation and destruction of the universe developed out of the original common mythology of the Germanic peoples and constitute the primary source of knowledge about ancient German mythology. Because Scandinavian mythology was transmitted and altered by medieval Christian historians, the original pagan religious beliefs, attitudes, and practices cannot be determined with certainty. Clearly, however, Scandinavian mythology developed slowly, and the relative importance of different gods and heroes varied at different times and places. Thus, the cult of Odin, chief of the gods, may have spread from western Germany to Scandinavia not long before the myths were recorded; minor gods including Ull, the fertility god Njord, and Heimdall may represent older deities who lost strength and popularity as Odin became more important. Odin, a god of war, was also associated with learning, wisdom, poetry, and magic.

Most information about Scandinavian mythology is preserved in the Old Norse literature (Icelandic, Swedish, and Norwegian Literature), in the Eddas and later sagas; other material appears in commentaries by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus and the German writer Adam of Bremen (flourished about 1075). Fragments of legends are sometimes preserved in old inscriptions and in later folklore.

Gods and Heroes
Besides Odin, the major deities of Scandinavian mythology were his wife, Frigg, goddess of the home; Thor, god of thunder, who protected humans and the other gods from the giants and who was especially popular among the Scandinavian peasantry; Frey, a god of prosperity; and Freya, sister of Frey, a fertility goddess. Other, lesser gods were Balder, Hermod, Tyr, Bragi, and Forseti; Idun, Nanna, and Sif were among the goddesses. The principle of evil among the gods was represented by the trickster Loki. Many of these deities do not seem to have had special functions; they merely appear as characters in legendary tales.

Many ancient mythological heroes, some of whom may have been derived from real persons, were believed to be descendants of the gods; among them were Sigurd the Dragon-slayer; Helgi Thrice-Born, Harald Wartooth, Hadding, Starkad, and the Valkyries. The Valkyries, a band of warrior-maidens that included Svava and Brunhild, served Odin as choosers of slain warriors, who were taken to reside in Valhalla. There the warriors would spend their days fighting and nights feasting until Ragnarok, the day of the final world battle, in which the old gods would perish and a new reign of peace and love would be instituted. Ordinary individuals were received after death by the goddess Hel in a cheerless underground world.

Scandinavian mythology included dwarves; elves; and the Norns, who distributed fates to mortals. The ancient Scandinavians also believed in personal spirits, such as the fylgja and the hamingja, which in some respects resembled the Christian idea of the soul. The gods were originally conceived as a confederation of two formerly warring divine tribes, the Aesir and the Vanir. Odin was originally the leader of the Aesir, which consisted of at least 12 gods. Together all the gods lived in Asgard.

Religious Ritual
The Scandinavian gods were served by a class of priest-chieftains called godar. Worship was originally conducted outdoors, under guardian trees, near sacred wells, or within sacred arrangements of stones. Later, wooden temples were used, with altars and with carved representations of the gods. The most important temple was at Old Uppsala, Sweden, where animals and even human beings were sacrificed.

The Aesir Family
The Aesir family of Gods were the chief gods of Norse Mythology... Odin, king of the gods. His two black ravens, Huginn (Thought) and Muninn (Memory), flew forth daily to gather tidings of events all over the world. As god of war, Odin held court in Valhalla, where all brave warriors went after death in battle. His greatest treasures were his eight-footed steed, Sleipner, his spear, Gungnir, and his ring, Draupner. Odin was also the god of wisdom, poetry, and magic, and he sacrificed an eye for the privilege of drinking from Mimir, the fountain of wisdom. Odin's three wives were earth goddesses, and his eldest son was Thor, the god of Thunder. Odin was worshipped under different names, throughout northern Europe. The Germans called him Wotan, and the English Woden. Thor, the god of thunder, eldest son of Odin and Jord, the earth goddess. Thor was the strongest of the Aesir, whom he helped protect from their enemies, the giants. Thunder was believed to be the sound of his rolling chariot. Also, thursday is named for Thor (Thor's day). Named after the Germanic word for thunder, Thor wielded a hammer, called Mjollnir, which represented a powerful thunderbolt. If thrown, the hammer would return to him like a boomerang.

The Valkyries, were warrior maidens who attended Odin, ruler of the gods. The Valkyries rode through the air in brilliant armor, directed battles, distributed death lots among the warriors, and conducted the souls of slain heroes to Valhalla, the great hall of Odin. Their leader was Brunhild. Freya or Freyja, goddess of love, fertility, and beauty, sometimes identified as the goddess of battle and death. Her father was Njord, a fertility god. Blond, blue-eyed, and beautiful, Freya traveled on a golden-bristled boar or in a chariot drawn by cats. She resided in the celestial realm of Folkvang, where it was her privilege to receive half of all the warriors slain in battle; the god Odin received the other half at Valhalla. In Germany, Freya was sometimes identified with Frigg, the wife of Odin. Friday originates from Frigga's day.